THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

 The Mughal Dynasty 

The Mughal empire, self-designated as Gurkani was an empire extending over a large parts of the Indian subcontinent. It begins with the victory of Babar over Ibrahim Lodhi with a brief interval of 15 years, when Sher Shah Suri and his successors ruled the country, the Mughal empire lasted from AD 1526 to 1707 for 181 years. 

Babur (AD 1526-1530) 

1. He was the founder of the Mughal rule and belonged to chughtai section of the Turkish race. The Uzbegs taught him a novel method of warfare, called Tulughma by which the attention of the enemy was diverted by first attacking its flanking parties and thus, avoiding direct clash with the main forces. Wrote his autobiography Tuzuki-i-Baburi in Turki. 

2. He was defeated in the Battle of Chausa by Sher Shah Suri in 1539. 

3. He was invited to attack India by Daulat Khan Lodhi (Subedar of Punjab), Ibrahim Lodhi's uncle Alam Khan Lodhi and Rana Sanga. 

Humayun (AD 1530-1556) 

1. Humayun succeeded Babur to the throne at Agra. He divided the Mughal territories with his three brothers. A major problem after accession to the throne was the unsettled state of administration, the insufficient treasury and the ambition of the nobles. He constructed a grand acropolis at Delhi known as Dinpanah. 

2. He was again defeated in the Battle of Bilgram (Kannauj) by Sher Shah Suri in 1540. 

3. Defeat by Kannauj compelled Humayun to leave India. He fled to the refuge of Safavid empire in Persian, where the Persian king Shah Tahmasp welcomed the mughal and treated him like a royal visitor.

4. He defeated the forces of Sikandar Shah Suri and occupied Agra and Delhi in 1555.

Restoration of Humayun (AD 1556) 

With the help of a nobel officer Bairam Khan, Humayun defeated the weak rulers of the Sur dynasty and took control over Agra and Delhi in AD 1556. He died from the effects of an accidental fall from the stair case of his library at Delhi in AD 1556.

Akbar (AD 1556-1605) 

1. He was born at Amarkot in the palace of Rajput Chieftain Rana Virsal in 1542. He was king of no land at the time of his coronation 1556 as the emperor of Hindustan. 

2. He fought the 2nd Battle of Panipat in 1556 with Hemu, the Hindu Minister of Mohammed Adil Shah. 

3. One of the greatest humanitarian measures of Akbar was abolition of slavery and the practice of converting prisoners of war to Islam, in AD 1562. He abolished pilgrimage tax in AD 1563 and Jaziya in AD 1564. 

Rajput Policy 

1. Akbar made the Rajputs not only his friends, but also took many Rajput princesses as his bride, He established matrimonial alliances with the royal families of the Rajput states, such as Amber, Bikaner and Jaisalmer. 

2. He granted the Rajputs equal rights with the Muslims and appointed them on high and elevated positions. 

Ibadat Khana 

1. In AD 1575, Akbar ordered the construction of the Ibadat Khana (House of worship) near the Jama Masjid in his newly built town of Fatehpur Sikri. Only the Sunnis were initially allowed to participate in religious discussions. Abdul Qadir Badayuni and Abul Fazl were the principal debaters. Both had been trained by Abul Fazl's father, Shaikh Mubarak.

2. Father Monserrate, a member of the first Jesuit mission at Akbar's court AD 1580-83, who accompanied the emperor in the Kabul campaign AD 1581 against his half-brother Mirza Hakim, his left a lively account of the religious debates during the journey. 

Din - i - llahi 

1. Father Daniel Bartoli, a later Jesuit author, claims that after his return from Kabul, Akbar made himself the founder and head of a new religion. This religion, Bartoli continues, was discussed by a council is regarded by modern scholars as the inauguration of Akbar's new faith, the Din-i-llahi. 

2. In the Ain-i-Akbari, Abul Fazal deals with a number of laws made by Akbar for secularising the state, which were, however, termed as illegal by the orthodox Badayuni. 

3. For instance, Akbar prohibited polygamy and allowed a second wife only in exceptional circumstances. 

4. He also prohibited child marriages, the circumcision of boys below the age of twelve and the slaughter of animals on certain days totaling about half the year. 

Nine Jewels (Navratnas) at Akbar's Court 

Following the footsteps of Chandragupta Vikramaditya of the Gupta period, Akbar maintained a court of nine distinguished persons who were known as nine jewels navratnas. 

Nine Jewels 

• Abdul Rah I'm

• Abul Fazl

• Birbal

• Faizi

• Hamim Human

• Raja Man Singh 

• Mulla Do-Piyaza

• Tansen

• Todarmal

Jahangir (AD 1605-1627) 

1. Prince Salim assumed the title of Jahangir and adhered to Akbar's ideals of the co-existence of all religious communities. He remitted some local taxes on trade and the manufacturing of goods. 

2. He married Mehr-un-Nissa, later titled as Nur Jahan, who was an accomplished lady. She is said to have been the real power behind the throne. 

Conquest of Jahangir 

1. Jahangir defeated Amar Singh of Mewar.

2. He conquered Ahmednagar in 1617 under prince Khurram, who was rewarded with the title Shah Jahan. 

3. In AD 1622, the Mughals lost Kandhar to the Iranian king, Shah Abbas. 

4. In AD 1606, Jahangir's son Khusrau revolted, but was defeated and imprisoned. Guru Arjun Dev (5th Guru of the Sikhs), one of Khusrau's well wisher was beheaded. 

Shah Jahan (AD 1627-1658) 

1. He had to overcome the revolts of the Bundelas and the Afghan nobel named Khan-i-Jahan Lodhi. Foreign travellers Bernier, Tavernier and Manucci visited his court. He reimposed pilgrimage tax. He revived the Jagirdari system. 

2. It is said that the kingdom founded by Babur nurtured by Akbar consolidated by Jahangir, reached to its zenith during the reign of Shah Jahan.

Conquest of Shah Jahan 

1. He conquered Ahmednagar, in 1633 which was under Fateh Khan. 

2. Other Deccan states like Bijapur, Golconda, Khandesh, Berar, Telangana and Daulatabad came under Maghal rule.

3. Aurangzeb was appointed the first Viceroy of Deccan. 

4. Shah Jahan also expelled Portuguese from Hooghly as they were abusing trading privileges. 

5. Kamrup was also annexed. 

Aurangzeb (AD 1658-1707) 

He was the third son of Shah Jahan. During his reign, the Mughal empire reached its territorial climax. His reign was marked by a gradual departure from Akbar's policy of co-existence. He was a proficient player of Veena. Being an orthodox Muslim, he forbade music in the court, ended Jharokha Darshan, use of almanacs and weighing of the emperor. Aurangzeb fought the following battles of succession with his brothers.

Battles 

• Battle of Bahadurgarh in February 1658

• Battle of Dharmat in April 1658

• Battle of Samugarh in May 1658

• Battle of Rupnagar in June 1658

• Battle of Khajwah in January 1659

• Battle of Deorai in March 1659 

Revolt Against Aurangzeb 

1. The Jat revolt was suppressed temporarily, but again Jats empowered themselves under the leadership of Churaman. The death of Aurangzeb led to the establishment of separate Jat kingdom.

2. Satnami revolt of peasants in 1672 was sparked off by a minor dispute between a peasant and a Mughal foot soldier, but finally the revolt was crushed. 

3. Bundelas under Champat Rai and Chhatrasal revolted against policies of Aurangzeb. An independent Bundela state was established after Aurangzeb's death. 

4. Sikh Guru Har Rai's good relations with Dara Shikon brought him into direct conflict with the emperor. The next Sikh Guru, Tegh Bahadur opposed the religious policy of Aurangzeb openly. 

5. Aurangzeb invaded Ahom kingdom, Marwar, Bijapur and Golconda. 

Mughal Administration

1. Subah was the largest unit equivalent to province. The head was known as Nazim or Subedar. 

2. Sarkar was equivalent to district, headed by Faujdar or Shiqdar. Other officers were

 Amalgujars, Kotwal. 

3. The administrative unit next to Sarkar was Paragana. It was headed by Shiqdar who was incharge of law and order. Other officers were Amir, Kanungo, Qazis.

4. Village affairs were looked after by the Panchayat. Lambardar was the head of the Panchayat. 

Mansabdari System 

1. It was introduced in 1595-96, showing a noble's civil and military capacity. Twin rank (s) zat and sawar were alloted. 

2. Zat A noble's personal status. 

3. Sawar The number of troops a nobel had to maintain. 

4. It had three scale gradation.

- Mansabdar (500 zat and below) 

- Amir (between 500-200 zat) 

- Amir-i-umda (2500 zat and above)

5. Salary of the Mansabdar was fixed on a month scale system. It was not a hereditary system. They were paid through revenue assignments Jagir. 

6. During Jahangir's reign, Duaspa, Sihaspa system was introduced through which a nobles sawars rank could be increased without affecting his zat. 

The Jagir System 

1. Jagir or tuyul was a unit of land, whose revenues were assigned to a Mansabdar in lieu of his salary. The Jagirs assigned in lieu of salary were known as Tankhwah Jagirs. Besides, there were the Watan Jagirs of the autonomous chiefs. 

2. Hence, the Jagir of the Mughal times was similar to the Iqta of the Delhi Sultanate. Like the Iqta, the assignment of a Jagir to a Mansabdar did not confer any hereditary rights to that Jagir on the Mansabdar. 

3. He could enjoy the revenues of the Jagir only as long as he held the Mansab or official rank and rendered services to the state.

4. In other words, the Jagirdars, owed their position to the Mughal emperor, there being no practical difference, between the state and the emperor in Mughal times. 

5. The Mughal emperors jealously guarded their privileged position against any hereditary claims to the Jagirs by the Jagidars by following the policy of frequent transfer of Jagirs of the Jagirdars.

Land Revenue System 

1. Land was classified into four types 

(I)   Polaj Continuously cultivated and very fertile. 

(II)  Parauti Left fallow for a year or two to recover productivity.

(III) Chachar Left fallow for 3/4 years. 

(IV) Banjar Uncultivated for 5 years or more and infertile land.

2. The three main principal revenue systems in the Mughal empire were as follows;

• Ghallabaksh or Batai or Crop Division Under this system, a share of each crop was taken by the state. This system prevailed in lower Sindh, a part of Kabul and Kashmir. 

• Kankut Cultivator and official arrived at a general estimate of produce of whole area the basis of sample survey by mutual agreement. 

• Nasaq/Estimate Past assessment determined the present. Todarmal collected the accounts of the Kanungos and some places ascertained their accuracy by local inquiries. From these accounts he prepared the rent roll of the Subah. The Nasaq system did not depend upon survey or seasonal records of produce. It resembled the Zamindari settlement. 

Zabti or Bandobast System 

Todarmal framed a regulation or standard system of revenue administration known as the Zabti system. Under this system, lands were accurately surveyed and a Jama was prepared. 

Dahsala System 

1. On the basis of above Zabti system fresh reforms were undertaken by Todarmal. These reforms, collectively known as Ain-i-Dahsala, were completed in 1580. Under this system, land was classified into four categories, viz. Polaj annually cultivated, Parauti left fallow for a short period (1 or 2 years), Chachar left fallow for 3 to 4 years and Banjar uncultivated for 5 years or more. 

2. Further as Abul Fazl mentioned, according to Ain-i-Dahsala, a 10 years state of every Paragana was ascertained in regard to the category of cultivation and level of prices. The aim was to introduce a permanent Jama and remove difficulties and delays associated with yearly sanction. 

3. Dasturs for cash crops were fixed separately. In 1588, Todarmal introduced a uniform unit of measurement, Ilahi Gaz, which was a medium gaz of 41 digits (33 inches). 

4. The Karori experiment was started by Akbar with the extension of Khalisa land, so as to provide facilities to revenue department to collect extensive data. 

5. Khalisa land was divided into circles, each yielding the revenue of one karor. That is why, it is known as the Karori experiment. 

6. Each circle was placed under a revenue official Karori. Aim was to make as extensive a measurement as possible, then use it as a basis for compiling a new general assessment. Instead of a rope, a Tanab made of bamboo sticks joined by iron rings, came to be used for measuring land in 1575. 

Mughal Architecture

Forts 

The Mughal emperors were great builders and that is why the Mughal period is called the Golden Age of Architecture in the Indian history. The first to undertake construction on a large-scale was Akbar. He constructed a series of forts, the most important, being the Agra Fort AD 1565, built in red sandstone.

Palaces 

1. Humayun laid the foundation of the city Din Panah at Delhi. Akbar adorned his capital, Agra with magnificent buildings and the palace known as Jahangiri Mahal. 

2. The architecture of Fatehpur Sikri is an excellent blending of Persian, Central Asian and various Indian styles Gujarat style buildings were for their Rajput wives. 

Mausoleums

During Akbar's reign, Humayun's tomb at Delhi was the first Mughal tomb to be placed in the centre of a large park-like enclosure. It was built by his widow Haji Begum or Hamida Bano Begum. It has a double dome of marble while the central dome is octagonal. 

Mosques 

1. During Babur's reign four mosques, one each at Sambhal (in Rohilkhand), Panipat (in Kabul Bash), Agra (old fort) and Ayodhya were built. 

2. Humayun's troubled reign left him little opportunity to indulge in artistic taste. 

3. Jamia masjid at, Fatehpur Sikri built during Akbar's reign is one of the most magnificent buildings. 

4. Shah Jahan's reign saw the climax as seen in Moti masjid at Agra. 

5. Aurangzeb cared little for architecture. He built Moti masjid in the Red Fort and Badshahi Mosque in Lahore. 

Gardens 

The special contribution of the Mughals was the laying out of beautiful gardens. Babur laid the first such garden in Agra. The Nur-i-Afshan all the Mughal buildings generally incorporate gardens. Jahangir, perhaps, is most famous for his gardens Shalimar at Srinagar and the garden in Lahore. 

Mughal Painting 

The Mughal art of painting like the Mughal architecture, was the outcome of many influences . In the beginning, during the reign of Babur and Humayun, it was affected altogether by the Persian influence. 

Under Humayun 

At Tabriz, he met two young painters, Mir Sayyed Ali and Abd-us-Samad, to whom he gave hope of future employment in case he regained his kingdom. Later on those two joined him in Kabul and Abd-us Samad gave drawing lessons to little Akbar. 

Under Akbar 

1. Under the supervision of Mir Sayyed Ali and Abdus Samad the imperial atelier of painters and calligraphers took shape. Their first endeavour was to complete the pictures for the earliest Mughal illustrated manuscript, the Dastan-i-Amir Hamza. Begun in 1550 under Humayun, it took 25 years to finish. He called a great number of artists to his court. Going by their names, the majority of these seemed to be Hindu. 

2. The chief painters were Mir Sayyed Ali, Abdus Samad, Farrukh Beg, Basawan and Daswant Mir Sayjid Ali and Abdus Samad trained the Mughal craftsmen in all the technical details of Persian miniatures. 

3. Many Indians such Basawan, Miskina and Daswant attained great positions as court artists and Abul Fazl in his "Ain-i-Akbari" (Biography of Akbar) bestows high praise on them. 

4. The Tuti Namah (The Parrot's tale) and 'Anwar-i-Suhaili' show each bird and animal with detailed realism. This portrayal of animals foreshadows the perfection attained under Jahangir. 

Under Jahangir 

1. He had a predilection for the art of painting which he cultivated much more than architecture. During his residence at Allahabad as Salim, he had already employed a number of painters, notably Aqa Raza, whose son Abul Hasan later served under Jahangir. 

2. The co-operation of several painters on one work continued, but Jahangir could distinguish which part each artist had contributed. 

3. During this period, European influence manifested itself more and more. The custom of copying European paintings and engravings continued. By that time book illustrations became outdated except for the representation of fables, e.g. 'Iyar-i-Danish' and 'Anwar-i-Suhaili'. The portrayal of officers also continued. 

4. Jahangir preferred group portraits as well as Court scenes and different episodes of his life. 'Jahangir embracing Shah Jahan' shows the same careful portrayal as in Akbar's time. 

5. Portraits paintings reached a climax in his period. The early portraits show the persons standing or seated either in front of the buildings or inside. During the last 10 years of Jahangir's reign Mughal paintings witnessed a change an increased predilection for symbolism. 

Under Shah Jahan 

1. Through, interested mainly in architecture, he continued to patronize painting. The visit of the emperor with his nobles and royal ladies to ascetics and dervishes constitutes a predominant theme of this period. Many night scenes were also painted for the first time in the Mughal period. A new technique, consisting of fine, delicate line drawings slightly tinted with washes of pale colors and gold and known as Siyahi Qalam, became fashionable. 

2. Emperor Shah Jahan on the peacock throne, one of the best known Mughal miniatures, shows the famous peacock throne now lost, but much admired by contemporaries and described by the French traveller Bernier. On the other hand, it typifies the portraits of this time. 

Under Aurangzeb

He did not patronize any arts. Culture lost its vitality and finally declined. Perhaps during his waning years he may have consented to have his portraits painted, for there are surviving examples where he is shown either as a bearded old man hunting or holding a copy of the Quran in his hand.

Mughal Literature 

Hindi Literature

1. Malik Muhammed Jayasi wrote a poetical composition Padamavat on Padmani, the queen Mewar in 1540. 

2. Akbar also gave impetus to Hindi poetry. His reign was the golden age of the Hindi poetry because it was in his time that some Hindi poets of immortal fame, such as Tulsi Das, Sur Das, Mira, Rahim and Ras Khan, lived. 

3. The greatest Hindi poet of Akbar's time was Sant Tulsi Das 1532-1623 who wrote the famous Ramcharitamanas. 

Sanskrit Literature

Akbar was the first Mughal monarch who patronized Sanskrit as well as Hindi. During his reign, many Hindi writers were also writers of Sanskrit-Persian dictionary, named Paris Prakash was compiled. Jahangir too extended royal patronage to Sanskrit writers and kept them in his court.

Developments in Music 

1. The Mughal kings , except Aurangzeb, had a great attachment with music. Babur is said to have composed songs. However, it was due to Akbar's interest and patronage of this art that both kinds of music instrumental and vocal made unusual advancement. In his time, the National Indian Music took its birth by the blending of the Hindus and Muslims types of music. His court was adorned by famous musicians like Tansen of Gwalior and Baz Bahadur of Malwa. 

2. Shah Jahan was fond of vocal and instrumental music. The two great Hindu musicians of time were jagannath and  Janardhan Bhatta. It is said that once Shah Jahan was so pleased with the singing of Jagannath, the royal poet of Sanskrit, that he weighed him against gold and gave him the whole of this gold as a prize. 

3. But Aurangzeb who was a puritan dismissed singing from his court. However, ironically, the largest number of books on classical music was written in his reign.