THE MARATHA EMPIRE

Shivaji (AD 1627-1680)

Shivaji was born in the fort of Shivner in AD 1627. He belonged to the Bhonsle family of Poona district. The family acquired military and political prominence in the Ahmednagar kingdom at the close of the 16th century. Shahji Bhonsle, the father of Shivaji, was a military officer at first in the State of Ahmednagar and then from 1636, in the State of Bijapur and he owned the territory of Poona as a Jagir. His mother was Jija Bai, a very religious lady. Shivaji was brought up at Poona under the careful supervision of his mother and an able Brahman Dadaji Kondadev. Shivaji also came under the religious influence of Guru Samarth Ramdas. In AD 1637, Shivaji's father entrusted the administration of the Pune Jagir to him. The administration of Jagir remained under the Dadaji's de facto control till AD 1647, when Shivaji assumed the full charge. Before that, at the age of 18, he overran a number of hill forts near Poona. He captured the fort of Torana in AD 1646. Shortly afterwards, he built new forts like Raigarh and Pratapgarh. In 1674, Shivaji was corenated at capital Raigarh and assumed the title of Haindava Dharma-dharak (Protector of Hinduism). 

Conquests 

Shivaji began his real career of conquest in 1656, when he conquered Javli from the Maratha Chief Chandra Rao More. Next, he attacked the Adil Shahi kingdom Of Bijapur in AD 1657-1658. In an audacious move, he killed Afzal Khan, General of Bijapur in his own camp. In AD 1660, a combined Mughal-Bijapuri campaign started against Shivaji. 

Shaista Khan (Maternal uncle of Aurangzeb) was appointed as Governor of Deccan, by Aurangzeb, to check the rising power of Shivaji. However, in AD 1663, Shivaji made a bold attack on military camp of Shaista Khan. He plundered Surat in AD 1664 and later Ahmednagar. Aurangzeb sent his son, Prince Muazzam and then on his failure, Mirza Raja Jai Singh of Amber against Shivaji. Jai Singh succeeded in surrounding Shivaji in the fort of Purandhar. Consequently, the Treaty of Purandhar AD 1665 was signed according to which; Out of the 35 forts held by him, Shivaji agreed to keep only 12 forts (with annual income of 1 lakh of huns) in his possession. The remaining 23 forts (which yielded 4 lakhs huns every year were to be returned to the Mughals. Shivaji agreed to the condition attached with his possession of 12 forts service and loyalty to the Mughal throne. Shivaji agreed to help the Mughals against Bijapur.Shivaji was to keep possession of the territory worth 4 lakhs huns a,year, in the Bijapuri Konkan region. The Balaghat territory of Bijapur was granted to Shivaji. Shivaji agreed to visit the imperial court of Aurangzeb at Agra. Shivaji reached Agra in AD 1666 and executed a miraculous escape after being humiliated by Aurangzeb in his court. Shivaji renewed his war against the Mughals by his second plunder of Surat in AD 1670 and gradually, recovered many of his forts. Aurangzeb sent Diler Khan and Bahadur Khan against Shivaji. However, Shivaji defeated them in the Battle of Salher in AD 1672. Shortly after his coronation, Shivaji formed an alliance with the Qutub Shahi rulers of Golconda and led a campaign into Bijapuri Karnataka (AD 1676-1679) and conquered Gingee (Jingi), Vellore and many forts in Karnataka. He died at Raigarh in AD 1680, after ruling for only 6 years. 

Coronation of Shivaji 

Shivaji declared himself the independent ruler of the Maratha kingdom and was crowned Chhtrapati in AD 1674 at Raigarh. He made Raigarh his capital. Shivaji's coronation symbolizes the rise of the people to challenge the might of the Mughals. It was significant due to the following reasons:

• By coronating under the title Haindava Dharmodharak of the new and independent state Hindavi Swarajya, Shivaji proclaimed to the world that he was no just a rebel son of a Maratha sardar in Bijapur court, but equal to any other ruler in India. 

• Only a coronation could give Shivaji the legitimate right to collect revenue from the land and levy tax on the people. Ganga Bhatt, the priest presiding over the function, declared that Shivaji was Surya Vansi Kshatriya and gave the title of Kshatriya Kalvatvamsa. 

The Successors of Shivaji 

Sambhaji (AD 1680-1689) 

The war of succession between Sambhaji, the elder son and Rajaram, the younger son of Shivaji, resulted in the victory of the former and imprisonment of the latter. Sambhaji or Shambhuji ascended the throne on 20th July, 1680. Distrust upon Maratha leaders led him to place his confidence in a Brahmin, named Kanhoji, whom he invested with the supreme control of the administration and the title of Kavi Kalash in AD 1680-1681. Sambhaji provided protection and support to Akbar II, the rebellious son of Aurangzeb. In AD 1689, Sambhaji and Kavi Kalash were captured at Sangamesvar by a Mughal general, Muqarrab Khan and put to death. Mughal army, under Zulfiqar Khan, launched an attack upon Raigarh. All members of Sambhajis family, including his son Sahu, were made captive.

Rajaram (AD 1689-1700) 

At the time of Sambhaji death, his son Sahu was only 7 years old. Rajaram, the younger son of Shivaji and step brother of Sambhaji, who had been kept in prison by the latter, was proclaimed king by the Maratha Council of Ministers and crowned at Raigarh in February AD 1689. But, soon thereafter, apprehending a Mughal attack, Rajaram left left Raigarh and moving from place to place ultimately reached Jinji or Gingee in Karnataka. The Maratha Council of Ministers and other officials also joined him at Gingee till AD 1698, remained the centre of Maratha activity against the Mughals. With his two able generals, Santaji Ghorpade and Dharaji Jadav, Rajaram launched an attack upon the Mughal territories in Deccan. Rajaram's administrative changes included the creation of the new post of Pratinidhi, thus, taking the total number of ministers, in Ashtapradhan, to nine. Although, Sahu was given the title of Raja and granted a Mansab, he virtually remained a prisoner in the hands of Mughals till the death of Aurangzeb (1707). Jinji fell to the Mughals (AD 1698) and Rajaram escaped to Visalgarh (Maharashtra). He died in March, AD 1700 at Satara, which had become the capital after the fall of Jinji. 

Shivaji II and Tarabai (AD 1700-1707) 

After the death of Rajaram, Tarabai, the widow of Rajaram put her other son, Shivaji II on the throne and herself became the regent. Tarabai's energy and ability made her the de facto ruler. She saved the Maratha state during a period of a grave crisis. Tarabai directed the conduct of both civil and military affairs with equal success. During the period, Marathas attacked Berar (AD 1703), Baroda (AD 1706) and Aurangabad. In the midst of this confusion and disorder, Aurangzeb died on 3rd March, 1707, while Tarabai was still in power. The Mughals, however, succeeded in dividing the Marathas into two rival camps: one under Tarabai and the other under Sambhaji's son, Sahu who succeeded in deposing Tarabai with the help of a Chitpavan Brahman named Balaji Vishwanath. 

Sahu (AD 1707-1749) 

Sahu was released by the Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah and this was the beginning of civil war (AD 1707-1714) between him and Tarabai . Tarabai's army was defeated by Sahu at the Battle of Khed , 12th October 1707 and Sahu occupied Satara. Now, the Maratha kingdom was split up into two antagonistic sub-states. Sahu was the head of the state at Satara while Shivaji II or really Tarabai, was the head of the other at Kolhapur. When Shivaji II died, another son of Rajaram, Sambaji II ascended the gaddi of Kolhapur. The feud between these two rivals was finally settled by the Treaty of Warna in 1731, which provided that Sambhaji II should rule over the Southern division of the Maratha kingdom with Kolhapur as its capital and the Northern part with the capital at Satara would be the preserve of Sahu. Sahu's reign saw the rise of Peshwaship and transformation of the Maratha kingdom into an empire based on the principle of confederacy. 

Administration Under Shivaji 

Shivaji laid the foundation of a sound system of administration. Shivaji's system of administration was largely borrowed from the administrative practices of the Deccan states. Most of the administrative reforms of Shivaji were based on Malik Amber reforms in Ahmednagar. 

Central Administration

Shivaji appointed Hindus on high posts. Maratha was made the state language instead of Persian. He ordered Pandit Hanumant to prepare a dictionary of state craft for official use, titled as Raja Vyakaran Kosh. The king was the supreme head of the state. He was assisted by a group of 8 ministers known as the Ashtapradhan. It cannot be termed as the Council of Ministers, as there was no collective responsibility and each minister was directly responsible to Shivaji. The Council of Ministers could not initiate policy; its functions were purely advisory. All the ministers, except the Nyayadhish (Chief Justice) and Pundit Rao usually held military commands besides their civil duties. Shivaji did not allow the high offices to become hereditary. There were 8 officers in each department to assist the Ashtapradhan-Diwan, Majumdar, Fadanwis, Sabanwis, Karkhani, Chitnish, Zamdar and Patnish. Shivaji divided the territory directly under his rule (Swaraj) into three provinces, each under a Viceroy. He further divided the provinces into Prants each of which was sub-divided into Parganas and Tarafs. The lowest unit was the village and each village had its headman or Patel. 

Revenue Administration

Shivaji abolished the Jagirdari system and replaced in with Ryotwari system. Shivaji brought about changes in the position of hereditary revenue officials , variously called Deshmukhs, Deshpandes,

Patils and Kulkarnis. Shivaji strictly supervised the Mirasdars i.e. those with hereditary rights in land. Through , he did not completely do away with these officials, he considerably reduced their powers by close supervision and strict collection of revenue from them. Appointment of revenue officials (Subahdars or Karkuns, in charge of revenue administration of Prants) helped in establishing a strong revenue system. The revenue system seems to have been patterned on the Kathi system of Malik Ambar, in which land was carefully measured with the help of a measuring rod or kathi. The assessment of revenue was made after a careful survey and classification of the lands according to their quality and yield. The share of the state was fixed at two-fifths of the gross produce. The cultivator was given the option of paying either in cash or kind. A new revenue assessment was completed by Annaji Datto in AD 1679. 

Military Administration

Shivaji organized a disciplined and efficient army. The ordinary soldiers were paid in cash, but the big chiefs and military commanders were paid through the grant of Jagirs (Saranjam or Mokasa). The army consisted of infantry (Mavali foot soldiers playing the most important role), consisting of bargirs and silahdars, the former were provided with horses and equipment by the state, while the later maintained their own and the navy (consisting of two squadron each under a Hindu and a Muslim) officials of Shivaji's administration. A special feature of his military administration was the maintenance of a large number of forts. Each fort was under the joint command of three officers of equal rank as a precaution against treachery and they were frequently transferred. Pindaris were allowed to accompany the army who were allowed to collect 'Pal-patti', which 25% of the war booty. 

Maratha Power Under the Peshwas 

Marathas also tried to establish a naval force with the help of 'Siddis of Janzibar'. However, with the strong presence of Portuguese, they could not succeed in revamping their naval base. After his release by the Mutual emperor Bahadur Shah in AD 1707. Sahu conferred upon Balaji Vishwanath, the title of Sena-Karte (maker of the army) and later on, elevated him to the post of Peshwa in AD 1713. With Balaji's appointment as the Peshwa, the office of the Peshwa became hereditary. Balaji and his successors became the de facto rulers of the Maratha kingdom. From now onwards, the Chattrapati became just a figure-head. In all, there were 7 Peshwas. Of these, the ablest was Baji Rao I and the weakest and most incompetent was Baji Rao II. 

Balaji Vishwanath (AD 1713-1720) 

He began his career as a small revenue official by Sahu in AD 1708 and was appointed as a Peshwa of Maratha empire in AD 1713. He played a crucial role in the civil war and was responsible for the final victory of Sahu by winning over almost all the Maratha sardars to the side of Sahu. He concluded an agreement with the Sayyed brothers (1719) by which the Mughal emperor recognized Sahu as the king of the Swarajya and allowed him to collect Chauth and Sardeshmukhi from the 6 Mughal provinces of the Deccan. 

Baji Rao I (AD 1720-1740) 

Baji Rao I the eldest son of Balaji Vishwanath, succeeded him as Peshwa at the young age of 20. He was considered the greatest exponent of guerrilla tactics after Shivaji and Maratha power reached its zenith under him. His period saw the beginning of the system of confederacy and the rise of Maratha chiefs. Under the system, each prominent Maratha chief was assigned a territory as his sphere of influence, which he was supposed to conquer on his own and which he could administer autonomously. Consequently, several Maratha families became prominent and got themselves entrenched in different parts of India:

1. The Gaekwad at Baroda 

2. The Bhonsle at Nagpur 

3. The Holkars at Indore 

4. The Scindias at Gwalior 

5. Peshwas at Poona 

After defeating and expelling the Siddhis of Janjira from the mainland (AD 1722), he conquered Bassein and Salsette from the Portuguese (AD 1733). He also defeated the Nizam-ul-Mulk near Bhopal and concluded the Treaty of Durai Sarai, by which he got Malwa and Bundelkhand from the latter (AD 1737). He led innumerable successful expeditions into North India to weaken the Mughal Empire and to make the Marathas the supreme power in India. He said, "Let us strike at the trunk of the withering tree and the branches will fall of themselves". 

Balaji Baji Rao (AD 1740-1761) 

Popularly known as Nana Saheb, he succeeded his father at the age of 20. After the death of Sahu (1749), the management of all state affairs was left in his hands. An agreement was reached between the Mughal Emperor (Ahmed Shah) and the Peshwa (AD 1752) that the later would protest the Mughal Empire from internal and external (Ahmed Shah Abdali) enemies in return for the the Chauth of the North-West provinces and the total revenues of Agra and Ajmer provinces. This agreement brought the Marathas in direct conflict with Ahmed Shah Abdali of Afghanistan. The Third Battle of Panipat (14th January, 1761) resulted in the defeat of the Maratha by Ahmed Shah Abdali and the death of Viswas Rao (son of Nana Saheb) and Sadasiv Rao Bhau (cousin of Nana Saheb) and several other Maratha leaders and 28000 soldiers. Nana Saheb died on hearing the news on 23rd June, 1761. 

Peshwa Madhav Rao I (AD 1761-1772) 

Balaji Baji Rao was succeeded by his younger son Madhav Rao I. Raghunath Rao, the eldest surviving member of Peshwa family become regent to the young Peshwa and de facto ruler of the state. After the death of Madhav Rao, Peshwa ship had lost its all power. 

Administration Under the Peshwas 

The Secretariat of the Peshwas i.e. Huzur Daftar, was located at Poona. Now, the feudals ruled over their Jagirs independently. 

Mahattara 

The term 'Mahattara' found on medieval inscriptions refers to the village officials under the central administration. Village was the smallest unit of administration headed by the Patils. Kulkarnis assisted the Patils in keeping the documents of village administration. Potdars were appointed to inspect the currency. Balute system of exchange was prevalent in the villages. 

Pattakila

The term 'Pattakila' of Early Medieval India refers to the village headmen which is called as Patil in the modern times. Taraf, Pargana, Sarkar and Suba were the bigger units of administration. Mamlatdar was the highest officer and Kamvisdar subordinated him. Deshmukh, Despande and Darakhdars were appointed to check corruption. The Land Revenue Policy of the Peshwas was based on the interest of the peasants. Agricultural land was categorized according to its productivity. Mirasdars had full right over the land while Upari undertook agricultural work with the permission of the Peshwa. 

Maratha Confederacy 

The origin of the Maratha confederacy may be traced to the revival of the Jagir or Saranjam system by Rajaram. But, it was only in the time of Baji Rao I that the system made a base for itself. In this process, Sahu issued letters of authority to his various Maratha sardars for collecting Chauth and Sardeshmukhi from various parts of India. These letters of authority were called Saranjam. The holders of these Saranjams were called Saranjamdars. They merely recognized the Peshwas as their nominal head, after the death of Sahu.