Political Life of Later Vedic Aryans
In terms of the political context, the tiny tribal settlements of the Vedic period were replaced by comparatively stronger kingdoms while royal ower increased. The territorial formations and the development of lineages became stronger during the Later Vedic period. The term 'Rashtra' first appeared in this period. The wars were no longer fought for cows, but for territories. Chiefs grew at the expense of the tribal peasantry and handsomely rewarded the purohits who helped them in maintaining their authority. For instance, Aitreya Brahamana points out that the king has to provide 1000 pieces of gold and cattle to the Brahmana who anoints him. The king was addressed by different names across different regions. For instance, in northern regions, he was known as Virat, in eastern regions he was called Samrat while in western and southern regions, he was addressed as Svarat and Bhoja, respectively.
Aspects Related to Later Vedic Polity and Administration
1. The king was usually a Kshatriya and the office of the monarch was made almost hereditary. Traces of election of the chief or king appear in later Vedic texts, but hereditary kingship was emerging. The king gradually emerged as the controller of the social order too.
2. The king's influence was further strengthened by ritual enactments such as the Rajasuya (which was royal consecration and conferred supreme power on the king), Vajapeya (literally meaning drink of strength; it had a chariot race in which royal chariot was made to win against all kinsmen) and Aswamedha (unquestioned control over an area in which the royal horse ran uninterrupted). Due to the dominance of the rituals, the power and influence of the Rajanyas, the warrior nobles and the Brahmanas increased, while the king was distanced from the vis. It was slowly turning in its later stages to an age of the 'janapadas' instead of 'Janas'.
3. As the chiefs became more powerful, the authority of the popular assemblies started waning. Sabha and Samities continued to hold ground, through not like the Rig Vedic Age, but the vidatha completely disappeared. The functions of the popular assemblies were gradually replaced now by the officers who served as advisors to the chief and were appointed by him to help him in administration.
4. It should be noted that even in Later Vedic times, the king did not possess a standing army and tribal units were mustered in times of war.
Social Life of Later Vedic Aryans
The family still remained the basic unit of the Vedic society. However, its composition underwent a change. The Later Vedic family became large enough to be called a joint family, with three or four generations living together. The rows of hearths discovered at Atranjikhera and at Ahichchhtra (both in western Uttar Pradesh) show that these were meant for communal feeding or for cooking the food of large families.
Aspects Related to Later Vedic Society
1. In the family, a patrimonial (authority of father) system developed and women were generally confined to household chores and subordinate positions. As compared to the Rig Vedic age, women lost importance in the society and there have been references to rare instances of sati and child marriage. In one text, women have been counted as a vice along with dice and wine. In another text, a daughter has been said to be the source of all sorrows. Assemblies were then dominated by nobles and affluent men and women were no longer permitted to attend assemblies.
2. One of the most important changes from the Rig Vedic society was the rise and growth of social differentiation in the form of the varna system. The Later Vedic society was clearly divided into four varnas: Brahmanas, Rajanyas or Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras. The increasing cult of sacrifices added enormously to the power of the Brahmanas while the position of Shudras deteriorated as they were ordained to be in the service of the three upper varnas and were thus denied almost all the privileges. Even they could not recite the Gayatri mantra.
3. another important institution thar began to take shape was ashrama or the different stages of life, Brahmacharya (student life), grihastha (household), vanaprastha (hermitage) and the fourth stage sanyasa. Together with varna, Later Vedic society came to be known as Varna-ashrams-dharma society. Though Ashrama or the four stages of life were prescribed, but were not religiously followed.
4. The uper three classes known as Dvija (twice born) discriminated against both Shudras and Chandalas. Education was largely confined to dvija castes and began with the investiture ceremony, although women were also initiated at times. This can be construed as the beginning of the imposition of disabilities on the shudras as well as the beginning of the concept of ritual pollution.
5. The institution of gotra appeared in the Later Vedic culture. Literally it means 'cow pen' or the place where cattle belonging to whole clan are kept, but in course of time it meant descent from a common ancestor. Marriage between persons of the same gotra was forbidden. There were legendary seers, such as, Kashyapa, Vashista, Bhrigu, Gautama, Bhardwaj, Attri, Vishwamitra and Agastya, after whom the gotras were named. Kshatriyas and Vaishyas took the same gotra names of the families of Brahmans who traditionally performed their domestic rituals. There is mention of the Chandrayana penance for men marrying women of the same gotra.
6. Caste exogamy was extensively practiced and a rigid social hierarchy developed, which restricted the social mobility of the earlier period.
7. Interestingly, certain craft groups managed to attain higher status. For example, the Rathakaras, the chariot makers had the right to wear the sacred thread.
Economy of Later Vedic Aryans
The economic activities of Later Vedic period were quite diversified. Agriculture, pastoralism, craft production and trade contributed to h economic development. The predominantly pastoral society of Early Vedic times had become agricultural and agriculture emerged as the chief means of livelihood of the Later Vedic people. The Satapatha Brahmana mentions rituals related to ploughing undertaken by the kings and this suggests the importance given to cultivation by the rulers, and the shifts to agriculture to support the increasing population. The forests were cleared by burning he trees, which is also mentioned in the Satapatha Brahamana. Cultivation was done by the plough and mixed farming was one of the prime occupations of the Later Vedic people.
Aspects Related to Later Vedic Economy
1. The land was still communally owned over which the 'vish' (clan) had many participatory rights, but it was recognized as property and the head of the household who owned the land was termed as 'Grahpati'.
2. Rice and wheat became the staple diet of the people and apart from barley, the Later Vedic people now started growing wheat, rice, pulses, lentils, millet and sugarcane. Also, with the beginning of food production, agricultural produce began to be offered in the rituals. the items of dana and dakshina included cooked rice. Tila, from which the first widely used vegetable food-oil was derived increasingly, came to be used in rituals.
3. The society was largely rural. However, towards the end of the period, there are traces of the beginning of urbanism (as nagar in the sense of a town is mentioned in the Taittiriya Aranyaka).
4. The main factor in the expansion of the Aryan culture during the Later Vedic period was the beginning of the use of iron, which was introduced around 1000 BCE and is mentioned as Krishna Ayas/Shyama Ayas. The Later Vedic culture is also called as PGW-Iron Phase culture, as a particular kind of pottery (painted grey ware) was used during that phase.
5. Diverse arts and crafts proliferated during the Later Vedic age and craft specialization took deep roots, when compared to early Vedic period, since more occupational groups are mentioned in this period. For instance, bow makers, rope makers, arrow makers, hide dressers, stone breakers, physicians, goldsmiths and astrologers are some of the specialised professional groups mentioned in the texts. Tin, lead, silver, iron, gold, bronze and copper were known to Later Vedic people. There were probably good smiths and smelters as a lot of copper objects have been found at PGW sites. People had obtained knowledge of glass manufacturing too. Shresthins indicate the guilds or organisation of merchants.
6. Exchange was still via barter, but nishka was used as a convenient unit of value although not as a typical currency. Wagons drawn by oxen were probably the most used mode of transport.
7. Unlike the Rig Vedic age where only voluntary offerings were taken and per sent revenue collection was done, in the Later Vedic age, collection of taxes and tributes was made mandatory and were done by Sangrihitri. It is equally interesting to note that the Vaishyas appear to be the only tribute payers in Later Vedic times.
8. The Later Vedic people were acquainted with four types of pottery:
(I) Painted Grey Ware
(II) Black and Red Ware
(III) Black-slipped Ware
(IV) Red Ware
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