VEDIC PERIOD

Early Vedic Age (1500 - 1000 BC)

Geography

1. According to Rig Veda, Aryans had the knowledge of the Indus valley (Saptasindhava). Indus  is the most mentioned river in Rig Veda. Saraswati (Naditarna) is considered as the holiest river. It is identified with Hakra Ghaggar channel in Haryana and Rajasthan, but in Rig Vedic description, it seems to be the Avestan river Harakhvati, from where the name Saraswati was transferred to India. 

2. Samudra referred to collection of water and not sea. They had knowledge of Himavat or the snow mountain Dhawa (desert land) and Majuvant, from which Aryans got Soma, an intoxicating drink.

Political Organization

1. The Rig Vedic polity was was a tribal polity. Kula (family) was the basis of both social and political organizations, starting with Kula, the hierarchy in ascending order was Grama (village), Vis (clan), Jana (tribe) and Rashtra (country). 

2. The tribal chief called Rajan was the center of administrative machinery. The kings(Gopajanasya) position was hereditary . He was protector of tribe and cattle, not the ruler of any specific territory. Several tribal assemblies called Vidhata, Sabha, Samiti emerged. They exercised military and religious functions. Women attended them occasionally. 

3. Doctrine of Divinity was not associated with kingship. Only me king, Purushasukta has been described as Ardhadeva (semi-divine) in Rig Veda. Important Officers were Purohita, Senani, Kulapati (head of family) Vishpati, Brajpati, Gramini, Sparsa (spy), Duta (messenger).

Economic Life 

1. Rig Vedic people were predominantly pastoral. Cow (Gau) was the most important animal. Gomata referred to men prosperous with many cattles. The terms of war were gavisthi or the search for cows.

2. The cow seems to have been most important form of wealth. 

3. Cattle breeding was their main occupation. They domesticated horse, sheep, goat, dog and ass. Wild animals known were lion, elephant and bear.

4. Agriculture was secondary occupation. Yava (barley) has been mentioned in Rig Veda. Shifting agriculture was practiced.

5. Pains formed the great trading class. They are condemned in several texts for their greed and hard heartedness. 

6. Ayas (copper and bronze) was common metal in use and metal smelters were called Karmar There are two Ayas: Shyam Ayas and Krishna Ayas. Nishkas, Hiranyapindas and Manas were used as recognised pieces of weights and value. 

7. Predominant pottery type was Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP), through black and red ware types were known to them. 

8. Taxation system was not developed and Bali was a form of voluntary contribution to the king. 

Society

1. Tribal society with kingship as the basis of social structure. Man was identified with his tribe called as Jana. Jana was divided into Vis (group of villages) under Vishpati i.e. Vis into Grama (village) under Gramani and Gramsa into Kulas (family) headed by Kulapa. 

2. The tribal society was broadly divided into priests, warriors and the people. Shudra is first mentioned in tenth books of Rig Vada. The Non-Aryans consisted of Dasyus and Dasas. Slavery was rampant at that time. No evidence for child marriage.

Position of Women

Rig Vedic society was patriarchal, so the birth of daughters was not desired. But once born, they were treated with kindness. Child marriage was not practiced . Women can choose their husband. Monogamy and Niyoga (a variant of widow re-marriage) was practiced. Some indication of polyandry have been found. Women participated in religious ceremonies and tribal assemblies.

Religion

Aryans were nature worshippers. Personification of the forces of nature. Vedic religion was Henotheism or Kathenotheism. Predominance of male God. Very few Goddesses find mention . Aim of worship was material gains. Cult of domestic hearth was prevalent. Sacrifice was the pivot of Vedic religion. 

Rig Vedic God

1. The most important divinity in the Rig Veda is Indra, who is called Purandara or Breaker of Forts. Indra played the role of a warlord, leading the Aryan soldiers to victory against the demons.

2. He is considered to be the rain God and through to be responsible for causing rainfall. The second position held by Agni (fire God).

Later Vedic period (1000 - 600 BC) 

Geography

1. Aryans occupied upper gangetic Doab. 

2. In this period, the Aryans moved into the Eastern areas as is evident from the story of Videha Madhava in Satpath Brahmin, where he moved Eastward Videha. 

2. The later Vedas gives three board divisions of India viz, Aryavarta (Northern India), Madhyadesa (Central India) and Dakshin Patha (South India). 

Political Organization 

1. King became more powerful with the formation of bigger kingdoms called Janapadas. His authority acquired territorial connotation. Popular assemblies lost power, importance and were now dominated by nobles and Brahmanas. 

2. Rig Veda and Atharva Veda refers to election of the "Rajan" through people approval. Taittiriya Brahmana gives the" Theory of Divine" origin of kingship. 

Economic Life

1. The shift towards Gangetic valley with the use of iron and fire made possible the growth of agriculture. Pastoralism was no longer the main subsistence activity of the people, through cattle rearing was also practiced. 

2. Satapatha Brahmana describes the various stages of agriculture such as ploughing, sowing, reaping, threshing. Both kharif and rabi crops were grown. 

3. Rice and wheat become the chief crops of the later Vedic Aryans, through they continued to produce barley. 

4. Increased importance of land triggered, development of urban life, new class of iron smiths, chariot makers and shipbuilders appeared. Emergence of painted Grey ware culture. 

5. The later Vedic period witnessed the coming up of "Purushasukta Theory".

6. Trading activities were undertaken and coins were used. Satamana and Krishnala, beside, Nishkas came to be used as units of value. 

Purushasukta Theory

Purushasukta is a late hymn of X mandel of Rig Veda. It says that four persons originated from the body of the Purusha or the Primeval creator. 

Brahmana  -  Mouth         Kshatriya -  Arms

Vaishya       -  Thighs         Shudra     -  Feet

Society

1. The society came to be divided into four Varnas called the Brahmnas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. Brahmanas emerged as the most powerful class, Vaishyas were the tribute players. First reference is given in Purushasukta. 

2. The upper three Varnas were entitled to Upanayana or investiture with sacred thread, but Shudras were deprived of it and were also not allowed to recite the Gayatri Mantra. 

3. The Institution of Gotra was established and no marriage could take place in same Gotra. The concept of Gotra was institutionalized. 

Position of Women

Degradation of women in this period. The status of women declined, but the right to education was not denied. They were deprived of Upanayana and religious ceremonies and from attending assemblies.

Aitareya Brahmana

Daughter is the source of misery, but son is the protector of family.

Maitrayani Samhita

There are three evils: liquor, dice and women.

Brihadaranyaka Upanishad

Yajnavalkya-Gargi dialogue proves that some women got higher education.

Religion

Rise of Vishnu alongside Rudra new Gods (Vishnu, Rudra, Prajapati, etc) came into prominence. Rig Vedic Gods (Indra, Varuna etc) lost prominence. Sacrifices became more elaborate. Increase in the prestige and importance of priestly class. Emergence of new philosophical concepts. 

Sacrifices Performed in Later Vedic Period 

1. Rajasuya Consecration Ceremony This conferred supreme power on the king. The Rajasuya sacrifice consists of five major ritual or ceremonies. Ashwamedha horse sacrifice which was meant to establish kings supremacy over his neighbours. The Aitareya and Satapatha Brahmana mention the names of some monarchs, who performed the sacrifice. 

2. Ratna Animasi Ceremony The king had to approach dignitaries who lived in permanent dwellings. Vajapeya chariot race which was meant to re-establish his supremacy over his own people within the kingdom. 

Literature of Vedic Period

The Vedas

1. The term Veda is derived from the root Vid, which means to know, signifying knowledge par excellence. The Vedas are collection of hymns, prayers, charms and sacrificial formulae. 

2. Vedas are called Apaurusheya and Nitya.

3. The Rishis to whom these books are ascribed are known as Mantradrashta meaning inspired saints, who received the hymns directly from the supreme creator. 

4. Apart from its literary significance, the Vedas throw light on the political, religious, social and economic aspects of the Vedic period.

Rig Veda

1. It consists of 1028 hymns and divided into X mandalas (books). The mandala II to VII are the oldest and known as family books composed by Gritsamada Vishvamitra, Vemadeva, Atri, Bharadwaja and Vashistha. 

2. Mandal VIII and IX belong to middle time. 

3. Mandal I and X are the last to be complied. 

4. In III rd mandala, composed by Vishvamitra, addressed to the solar deity Savitri, we find the famous Gayatri Mantra.

5. The IX th Mandala is completely devoted to the Vedic God Soma (The Lord of Plants). The X Mandala contains the famous Purushasukta hymn in which origin of Varna system is discussed. 

Sama Veda

1. Collection of hymn taken mainly from the VIII th and IX th mandalas of the Rig Veda and set to tune for the purpose of singing. 

2. Known as the Book of Chants and the origin of Indian music is traced to it. The hymns of Sama Veda were meant to be sung at the time of Soma sacrifice by the Udgatri priests.

Yajur Veda

It prescribes the rituals for performing different sacrifices. It is primarily a guide for the use of the Adhvaryu priests. This Veda is in both verse and prose. The two royal ceremonies of Rajasuya and Vajapeya are mentioned for the first time in this Veda.

It is divided into two parts 

(I) Krishna Yajur Veda (Black) Contain not only the hymns, but also prose commentaries.

(II) Shukla Yajur Veda (White) Contains only hymns.

Atharva Veda 

1. The Atharva Veda (book of magical formulae) contains charms and spells in verse, toward off evils and diseases. It preserves many popular cults and superstitions. It is believed to be work of non-Aryans. It contains 731 hymns. 

2. Indian medical science called Ayurveda, its origin from Atharva Veda. 

The Brahmanas

1. They are treatise relating to prayer and sacrificial ceremony. They are elaborate commentaries on the various hymns in the Vedas. 

2. The Brahmanas of the Rig Veda are intended for the use of the invoking priest (Hotri). Shatapatha Brahmana is the lengthiest and the most important of all the Brahmans. It throws light on the geographical shift of the Aryans towards the Eastern Gangetic Plains during the later Vedic period. The story of the prince Videgha Mathava provides clear indication towards this geographical expansion. 

The Aranyakas

Aranyaka literally means the forest and therefore, Aranyakas are also known as forest books. It deals with mysticism and symbolism of sacrifice and priestly philosophy. 

The Upanishads 

Upanishads literally means "Be seated at the feet of the Guru to receive the teachings". The Upanishad imparts philosophical knowledge and learning. They are also called Vedanta. There are 108 Upanishads.

2. Brihadaranyaka upanishad provides the first reference of the idea of rebirth. Later, the idea appears in a slightly fuller form in the Chandogya Upanishad. It is one of the oldest Upanishad.

The Vedangas 

1. The period after 600 BC is called Sutra period. Vedangas were compiled during this period. 

2. The Vedangas are called Smriti or literature handed down by tradition, because they are of human origin. 

Puranas 

The content of Purana seem to be of diverse material. Much as tales, anecdotes songs, ballads . The change is the mode of worship (from sacrifice to idol worship) and visual appeal of deities an against worship of ideas is evident. 

Epic

1. Mahabharata , written by Ved Vyas is older than Ramayana. Originally, Mahabharata consisted of 880 verse, then it was raised to 24000 verse. The final compilation brought the number of verse to 100000. 

2. Ramayana written by Valmiki originally consisted of 6000 verse, which was raised to 12000 and finally 24000 verse. 

Smritis

1. Dharma Shastra are the other name for Samritis, which are the law books written in Sloka form. 

2. The important Smritis are Manav Dharma Shastra, Vishnu Dharma Shastra, Yajnavalkya Smriti and Narad Smriti. Manav Dharma Shastra or Manusmriti is the oldest and most famous, Manu is supposed to be the first king and low giver. Later on, some minor Smritis and commentaries like the Mitakshara were complied.