Mahajanapadas
Mahajanapada refers to ancient Indian kingdoms that existed between the 3rd and 6th centuries BCE. These kingdoms and republics had evolved and flourished in a belt stretching from Gandhara in the North-West to Anga in the Eastern part of the Indian subcontinent and included parts of the trans-Vindyan region, prior to the rise of Buddhism in India. The 6th century BC is often regarded as a major turning point in early Indian history.
Literary Sources
1. There were sixteen territories called Shodasha Mahajanapadas.
2. The Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya (a part of sutta pitaka) provides the names of 16 Mahajanapadas at the time of Buddha.
3. Similarly, the Jaina text Bhagavati Sutra and another Buddhist text Mahavastu also provides such list of sixteen Mahajanapadas.
Types of Mahajanapadas
(I) Monarchial States - Anga, Avanti, Chedi, Kashi, Kosala, Gandhara, Magadha, Matsya, Shursena, Vatsa.
(II) Non-Monarchial/Republican States - Kamboj, Kudu, Koliyas, Malla, Moriya, Shakya, Vajji, Panchal, Licchavis, Bhaggas, Kalamas, Videhas, Jnatrikas.
Rise of Magadhan Empire
1. Out of the sixteen Mahajanapadas four were powerful. They were Magadha, Vatsa, Avanti and Koshala.
2. The period from 4th century to 6th century BC saw the struggle for supremacy among these four Mahajanapadas.
3. Ultimately, Magadha emerged as the most powerful and prosperous kingdom in North India. The founder of Magadha was Jarasandha and Brihadratha. But the growth started under the Haryanka, expansion took place under the Shishunaga and Nanda reached its zenith under the Mauryas.
Haryanka Dynasty
The earliest capital of Magadha was at Rajgir, which was called as Girivraja at that time. According to a Chinese pilgrim, Bimbisara founded the city of Rajagriha at the foot of the hills lying North of Girivraja.
Bimbisara (Seniya or Sreniya) (554-492 BC)
1. He was contemporary to the Buddha and first king to have a standing army. He defeated Anga king Brahmadutta and strengthened his position by matrimonial alliances.
2. His three wives belonged to royal family of Koshala Mahakosaladevi (sister of Prasenjit), Licchavi (Chellana) and Madra (Khema) clan of Punjab. He sent his personal physician Jivak (son of Salavati) to his rival Chandapradyota Mahasena of Ujjain to cure him of jaundice.
3. The Gandhara ruler of Taxila Pukkusati, sent an embassy to Bimbisara.
Ajatashatru (492-460 BC)
1. He was the son of Chellana and Bimbisara, he occupied throne by killing his father. He adopted an aggressive policy of expansion. He defeated his maternal uncle Prasenjit, king of Kosala and married his daughter Vijjira.
2. He destroyed Vaishali (capital of Licchavis) after a protracted war of 16 years by sowing the seeds of discord amongst the people of Vaishali. Buddha died during his reign and the patronised first Buddhist Council.
3. Sunidha and Vatsakar Ajatshatru's diplomatic ministers.
4. Mahashilakantaka A war engine which catapulted big stones.
5. Rathamusala A kind of Chariot with a mace, helped him to defeat Licchavis.
Udayain (460-444 BC)
Son and successor of Ajatashatru, he built the fort upon the confluence of the Ganga and the Son rivers at Pataliputra (Patna), thus, transferred the capital from Rajagriha to Pataliputra. He was succeeded by weak rulers Anuruddha, Munda and Naga-Dasak
Shishunaga Dynasty (412-344) BC
1. Shishunaga was the Minister of Naga-Dasak and was elected by the people. He destroyed the Pradyota dynasty of Avanti. He temporarily shifter the capital to Vaishali.
2. Kalasoka (Kakavarin) succeeded Shishunaga. He transferred the capital from Vaishali to Pataliputra and convened the 2nd Buddhist Council in Vaishali (383 BC).
Nanda Dynasty (344-323 BC)
1. Mahapadma Nanda, the great conquerer and founder of the dynasty was also known as Ekarat, Eka-chchhatra (sovereign ruler), Sarvakshatrantaka or Ugrasena (possesor of huge army). He conquered Kosala and Kalinga (from here he brought an image of the Jina as victory trophy). It is considered to be the first non-Kshatriya dynasty.
2. Dhanananda was the last Nanda ruler. Alexander invaded North-Western India during his reign (326 BC), but the huge army of Dhanananda deterred Alexander from advancing towards Gangetic valley. He is probably referred as Agrammes or Xandrames in the Greek texts.
3. Chandragupta Maurya assisted by Kautilya overthrew Dhanananda to establish Mauryan dynasty.
Causes for the Rise of Magadha
1. Advantageous geographical location with both Rajgir and Pataliputra situated at strategic locations. Abundance of natural resources, such as iron, enabled Magadhan rulers to equip with effective weapons. The alluvial soil of the Gangetic plains and sufficient rainfall were very conducive for agriculture produces.
2. Rise of town and use of metallic money boosted trade and commerce. The princes could levy tolls and accumulate wealth to pay and maintain their army. Use of elephants on a large-scale in wars with its proximity to ancient Kalinga.
3. Unorthodox character of Magadhan society. Contribution of several enterprising and ambitious rulers and their policies.
Pre-Mauryan Economic System
1. In the pre-Mauryan period, thus, we notice for the first time, an advanced food-producing economy spread over middle Gangetic plain and their beginning of urban economy in this area e.g. Cattle rearing was no longer the primary occupation and was replaced by agriculture. Rice was the staple cereal produced in Eastern UP and Bihar in this period.
2. Iron played a crucial role in opening the rained forests to clearance, cultivation and settlement.
3. Rural Economy A strong rural base was necessary for the beginning of urbanization and crafts as taxes and tributes were required in sufficient measures.
4. This period saw the second urbanization in India, towns had come into existence as Centres of industry and trade. The use of burnt bricks and ring wells appeared in the middle of the NBPW phase, in the 3rd century BC.
5. Specialized craftsmen tended to form guilds because it facilitated carriage of raw materials and the distribution of finished articles. We hear of 18 guilds (sreni) of artisans. The guild at this stage was not the highly developed mercantile system, which it was to become later. Each guild in habited a particular section of the town.
6. The introduction of a Monetary System considerably facilitated trade. Coins made of metal appear first in the age of Gautama Buddha. The earliest hoards have been found in Eastern UP and Magadha, although some have been found at Taxila. Most probably, they were referred as Nishka and Satamana.
7. Anathapindaka was a sresthi of Shravasti who denoted Jetuvana Vihara to the Buddha. Menduka was another rich sresthi of Rajagriha. Pre-Mauryan Social System.
8. The tribal community had been clearly divided into four Varnas: Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras.
9. The Dharmasutras laid down the duties of each of the four Varnas and the civil and criminal law came to be based on the Varna division. They condemned Vaishyas for lending money.
10. All kinds of disabilities were imposed on the Shudras. They were deprived of religious and legal rights and relegated to the lowest position in society.
11. Patriarchal tendencies became dominant. Women were looked down in comparison to men. They were to remain under the tutelage of male members and were not entitled to education and Upanayana ceremony.
Foreign Invasions
Persian Invasion
1. Cyrus (558-530 BC) of Persia was the first conqueror who penetrated well into India. He destroyed the city of Capisa (North of Kabul).
2. Herodotus, the Greek historian, also known as the Father of History tells us that in 516 BC Darius I (552-486 BC), grandson of Cyrus, sent a naval expedition to explore the valley of the Sindhu river and annexed the part of Punjab and Sind.
3. The Indian soldiers were part of the Archaemenian army that conquered Greece in the time of Persian ruler Xerxes I (465 - 456 BC) successor of Darius I. Darius III also enlisted Indian soldiers and sent them to fight Alexander.
Effects of Persian Invasion
1. Introduction of the Aramaic form of writing, which later developed into the Kharosthi alphabet.
2. Promotion to Indo-Iranian trade.
3. Fusion of Iranian/Persian feature in the Mauryan art.
4. Impact of Buddhism on the Zoroastrian religion of ancient Persia.
Greek Invasion
1. After the conquest of the Persian Empire, Alexander marched to India through the Khyber Pass in 326 BC.
2. He constructed a bridge on the Indus river at behind about 24 km.
3. After crossing the Indus, Alexander proceeded towards Taxila. The king of Taxila, Ambhi, readily submitted and offered to help Alexander and recognized him as his sovereign.
4. The most powerful among the North-Western Indians was the ruler of kingdom between the Hydaspes (Jhelum) and the Acesines (Chenab) whom the Greeks call Porus. Porus fought bravely, but was defeated and was led a captive before Alexander.
5. Alexander's advance was arrested on the bank of the Beas, for his soldiers mutinied and refused to proceed further after the Battle of Vitasta and Jhelum.
6. His dream of an Eastern Empire remained unfulfilled. The king who had never known defeat at the hands of his enemies had to accept defeat from his own men. Alexander remained in India for about 19 months.
7. While retreat he divided the whole territory from the Indus to the Beas into three provinces and put them under the overall charge of three Greek Governors.
Effects of Greek Invasion
1. The Greek invasion of India opened the trade route between North-West India and Western Asia. Europe came into contact.
2. The invasion led to the establishment of more Greek settlement in this area.
3. Opening up of four distinct routes between India and Greek by land and sea paving way for increased trade and cultural contacts between the two religions.
4. Indians learnt from the Greek in the field of astronomy, coinage, architecture and sculpture (Gandhara School of Sculpture).
5. Maurya empire had seen something of the working of the military machine of Alexander and acquired some knowledge which helped him in destroying the power of the Nandas.
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