POST - MAURYAN PERIOD ( 200 BC - AD 300 )

Sources

Archaeological Sources 

For the first time during this period, coins were associated with the kings and Indo-Greeks were the first Indian kings, who issued coins in their names. They were first to issue gold coins. Some inscriptions were as follows: 

- Junagarh inscription of Rudradaman. 

- Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela. 

- Ayodhya inscription of Dhanadeva. 

- Nasik inscription of Gautami Balashri. 

- Kanheri inscription of Vasishtaputra Puluamai. 

Literary Sources 

• Divyavadana 

• Lilitavistara

• Arya Manju Shri Mool Kalpa 

• Milinda Panha 

• Gargai Samhita 

• Malavikagnimitram of Kalidasa 

• Mahabhasya of Patanjali 

• Periplus of the Erythraean-sea 

• Geography of Strabo 

• Natural History of Pliny 

• History of Tibet by Lama Taranatha 

The Indigenous Ruling Dynasties

Sungas Dynasty

1. Capital Patliputra and Vidisha. 

2. Information about the Sunga dynasty is found in Divyavadana, Malavikagnimitram of Kalidasa and the Harshacharita of Bana. 

Pushyamitra Sunga 

1. He was the founder of Sunga dynasty, who assassinated the last Mauryan king Brihadratha in 184 BC. This is corroborated by Bana. 

2. Pushyamitra also faced an invasion of Kharvela, the king of Kalinga as well as. 

3. The Ayodhya inscription of Dhanadeva, credits Pushyamitra with the performance of two Ashwamedha sacrifices.

4. The Buddhist tradition as is preserved in the Divyavadana depicts Pushyamitra as a destroyer of Buddhist monasteries and places of worship. However, Sanchi Stupa was repaired and Bharhut Stupa was constructed fully in the time of the Sungas. Patanjali author of Mahabhasya was his contemporary. 

5. Bhagbhadra was another important king of this dynasty. 

6. Sungas soon came to be confined to Magadha and Central Indian territories only. 

7. Devabhuti was the last Sunga king, who according to Banabhatta (author of Harshacharita) was murdered by his Brahmana minister Vasudeva (75 BC). 

Kanvas Dynasty (75-30 BC) 

1. Vasudeva was the founder of the dynasty known as the Kanvas or Kanvayana in Magadha. 

2. Bhumimitra succeeded Vasudeva, who was followed by his son Narayana. He was succeeded by his son Susharman. 

3. According to Puranas, the Andhrabhrityas overthrew this dynasty. 

Chedis Dynasty 

1. Chedis Capital was Kalinganagara. 

2. The greatest and the most powerful king of the dynasty was Kharvela. His capital was Kalinganagara. 

3. The only source of information about the king Kharvela is the Hathigumpha inscription written in Prakrit language and Brahmi script. In the 9th year of his reign Kharvela built Mahavijaya Prasad (place of Great Victory) on both the banks of the river Prachi, in order to commemorate his victories in the North. 

4. In the 13th year of his reign, Kharvela undertook many welfare schemes like building caves for the Jaina monks in the Udaigiri hills i.e. Hathigumpha and Ranigumpha caves. 

Satavahanas (230 BC-220 AD) 

1. The Satavahanas appeared as the successors of the Mauryas in Deccan The Satavahanas were known as Andhras, Andhrajatiyah and Andhrabhrityas in the Puranic list. 

2. The Aitareya Brahmana refer about Andhras as the degenerate sons of Vishvamitra. In the Nasik inscription of Balashri, Gautamiputra Satakarni is called Ekabrahmana, which means either unrivalled Brahmin or the only protector of the Brahmins. Two inscriptions of the Satavahanas i.e. Nanaghat and Nasik have been discovered in Maharashtra.

3. Recent excavations in Telengana resulted in the discovery of a large number of Satavahana coins and seals. 

4. These discoveries testify to the fact that Telengana was the nucleus of the Satavahana empire. The description of Satakarni I as Dakshinapatha Pati in the Nanaghat inscription proves that the Satavahana dominion included other areas of the Deccan and beyond. 

Dynastic History of Satavahana 

1. Simuka was the founder of Satavahana dynasty. We know Kanha (Krishna) from an inscription at Nasik . He extended the kingdom upto Nasik in the West. Kanha was succeeded by Simuka's son Sri Satakarni I. 

2. The 6th king was Satakarni II, who ruled for 56 years and who wrested Eastern Malwa from the Sungas. Satakarni II had to face the invasion of Kharvela. Satakarni II was succeeded by his son Lambodara, who was followed by his son Apalka. 

3. Hala's reign of 5 years (AD 20-25) was a period of great prosperity. Hala himself composed Gatha Saptasati (also called the Sattasa), an anthology of 700 erotic verses in Maharashtri or Paisachi Prakrit. 

4. During this time, the Satavahanas suffered set backs when the Saka's invaded the empire from all direction. 

5. The Satavahana power was revived by Gautamiputra Satakarni (AD 80-104), who is also called Ekabrahmana. He is regarded as the greatest king of the Satavahanas dynasty. 

6. His achievements are recorded in glowing terms in the Nasik Prasasti by his mother Gautami Balashri. This inscription was engraved after his death and in the 19th regnal year of his son and successor Pulamayi I. 

7. Vasishtaputra Pulamai I ruled for 24 years whose coins have been found in Godavari and Guntur districts. The old stupa at Amravati was repaired and was ornamented with marble slabs during his reign. 

8. Puranas mention Siva Sri Satakarni as the successor of Pulamai I, who also known as Vasishtiputra Siva Sri Satakarni. 

9. The last great king of the dynasty was Yajna Sri Satakarni. 

10. But during the closing years of Yajna Sri's reign, the Abhiras captured the territory around Nasik. He issued coins bearing fish, boat known as Ujjain type of coins. 

11. After him, the Satavahana empire disintegrated and Many royal princes ruled at different places. The last Satavahana king of the main line was Pulamai IV. 

Significance of Satavahana's Rule 

1. They issued many coins in various denominations in gold, silver, copper, lead, potene, and thus, contributed in the growth of currency and coinage. 

2. Position of women improved in the society. Inter-caste marriages and marriages with foreigners were permitted, Growth of Art-Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda, Nasik, Karle etc flourished as great centres of art. They constructed Southern gateway of Sanchi Stupa. 

The Foreign Ruling Dynasties

Indo - Greeks 

1. Greek expansion in India was definitely, the work of Demetrius I. He was perhaps the first foreign king after Alexander, who carried Greek arms into the interior of India. 

2. He made Sakala his capital. Demetrius I soon took control of Gandhara and Taxila. He made Taxila his advance base. 

3. Demetrius II was put incharge of territories between the Hindukush ad the Indus. 

4. Demetrius I sent two sections of his armies for further conquest. One section was sent to Patliputra and the other section Southward down to Indus. 

Menander (165-145 BC) 

1. He was the most famous Indo-Greek king. He had his capital at Sakala and during his rule, the Indo-Greek power extended from the Swat valley to Punjab as far as the Ravi river. 

2. Menander is best known from the Pali work Milinda Panho (Question of Milinda), which is in the form of a dialogue between Milinda, the king of Sakala (Sialkot) and Nagasena (Buddhist scholar). 

Scythians 

1. The Satrapal form of government received a fresh impetus during the Scythian rule in India, the chief feature of which was the system of joint rule of a Mahasatrapa and a Satrap i.e., joint rule of Rajan and Yuvaraja. 

2. The title Satrap means (protector of the kingdom). It was the Achaemenid conquerors of North-Western India, who first introduced the Satrapa system of government. However, it was under the Kushanas that this system of government got well established. 

The Kshaharata Family 

1. Bhumaka was the first Satrap of the Kshaharata family. 

2. Nahapana succeeded Bhumaka. 

3. It appears from the Nasik inscription that the power of Nahapana was crushed by the Satavahana ruler, Gautamiputra Satakarni. 

4. The Kshaharata were succeeded by the Saka family of the Kardamakas with its centre at Ujjain. 

The Kardamaka Family 

Chastana was the first ruler of this line. 

The Shakas (90 BC-AD 100) 

The Greeks were followed by the Shakas, who controlled a much greater part of India than the Greeks. There were five branches of the Shakas with their seats of power: 

(I)   Afghanistan

(II)  Punjab

(III) Mathura 

(IV) Western India 

(V)   Upper Deccan 

Rudradaman I 

1. He was the most famous shaka ruler. 

2. The Junagarh inscription testifies that Rudradaman twice defeated Satakarni, the lord of the Deccan, but spared his life because of family relation. 

3. The same inscription makes a mention of repair of Sudarsana lake of Saurashtra by Rudradaman Governor in Saurashtra, Sutivashakh, the expense was borne completely by the King's exchequer. 

4. His Junagarh/Girnar inscription, AD 150 is the first inscription in chaste Sanskrit. According to Junagarh inscription, Rudradaman had matrimonial alliances with the Satavahanas of the Deccan, the Ikshvakus of Andhra and the Lichchhavis of Vaishali. 

5. Rudradaman was succeeded by Damaghsada I, Rudrasimha I, Jivadaman, Rudrasena I, Sanghadaman and Damasena. 

Parthians (247 BC-AD 224) 

1. The rule of the Saka and Parthians was simultaneous in different pockets of North-Western and Northern India. The Parthians originated in Iran. The first member of this line was Vonones. 

2. Gondophernes was however the greatest Indo-Parthian monarch. He ruled from AD 19-45 (based on Takht-i-Bahi inscription). 

Shaka Era 

Shaka Era, was adopted by the Indian Government as the Indian national calendar. Its zero year begins near the vernal equinox of the year 78. Shaka calendar begins on 22nd March every year except in leap years when it starts on 23rd March. 

Kushanas

1. In the beginning of the 1st century BC, the Yuehchis gave up their nomadic habits and divided themselves into 5 groups or principalities. 

2. Kujula Kadphises I (King one of the 5 principalities) organized the other 4 groups under his leadership. Kadphises I only issued copper coins which show roman influence. 

3. Wima Kadphises also known as Yen Kao Chan, succeeded his father. He adopted the title Maheshwar and ruled from AD 64-78. 

Kanishka 

1. Kanishka is usually regarded as the successor of Vima Kidphises. Kanishka is regarded as the greatest king of his dynasty. He is credited for starting the Saka era. This era beginning AD 78 also came to be described as the 'Sakakala' or 'Saka-Nripa-Kala'. 

2. His Sarnath inscription suggests that his rule was based on Satrapa system. Kanishka ruled from his capital Purushapura or Peshawar. This has been testified by Hiuen Tsang. Kanishka established a city named Kanishkapura in Kashmir. 

3. On the advice of Parsva, he convened the fourth Council of the Buddhists at Kundalavana vihara in Kashmir whose President was Vasumitra and Vice-President was Asvaghosha. The council prepared an encyclopedia of Buddhist philosophy called Mahavibhasa. 

4. Kanishka got a stupa, a matha and a town constructed at Peshawar, in which relics of Buddha were kept. 

5. Kanishka was a great patron of art and letters. The reign of Kanishka witnessed the execution of the best work in Gandhara style. 

6. The great tower at Peshawar (400 ft high) was chiefly made of wood and constructed under the supervision of a Greek engineer Agesilous. Kanishka built a tower near Taxila also. 

7. During his reign, the image of Bodhisattvas began to be erected in Gandhara style. At Mathura, we have a headless image of Kanishka, in which he is represented in the uniform of a warrior. 

8. The Buddhist writer: Nagarjuna, Asvaghosha, Parsva and Vasumitra lived at his court. Charaka, the exponent of Ayurveda was his court physician and Matara was his minister.

Successors of Kanishka 

1. Kanishka's successor was Vasishka (AD 101-105)

2. Huvishka succeeded Vasishka and according to Kalhana's Rajatarangini, Huvishka ruled simultaneously with Vasishka II or Vajheska (Father of Kanishka II) and later with Kanishka II. 

3. Huvishka founded the town of Huvishkapura in Kashmir (reference from Rajatarangini).

4. His coins contained figures of Skandakumara, Visakha, Mahasena and Uma, the Alexandrian Serapis, personified Roma, the Greek Heracles and several Zoroastrian deities. He transferred the capital from Purushapura to Mathura. 

5. Vasudeva was the last king of the dynasty. He assumed the title Shaono Shao Vasudevo Koshana. His coins bear the image of Shiva and his bull Nandi. 

Post-Mauryan Economy 

1. The period 200 BC-AD 300 was the most flourishing period in the history of crafts and commerce in ancient India. 

2. The chief articles of export from India were spices, perfumes, pearls, copper and sandalwood. The principal imports were cloth, glass, silver and gold. India's most lucrative foreign trade was with the roman Empire. Mathura was a great centre for the manufacture of a special type of cloth, Shataka other centres were Bengal, Varanasi, Gujarat and Gandhara. 

3. Artisans of this period were organized into at least 24 guilds. These guilds acted as bankers, financiers and trustees. They helped in making banking a widespread profession. 

4. The gold dinars and suvarna of Kushanas were of 124 grains and were based on roman denorices. 

5. A Greek sailor, Hippalus discovered the monsoon sea route to India from West Asia in AD 46-47.

Post-Mauryan Society and Religion 

1. Social laws were becoming rigid. Manusmriti was composed in 2nd century BC. Varna system existed in theory only. Brahmins continued to corner many privileges. Untouchability and slavery continued. Sudras were divided into Nirvasita and Anirvasita. Position of women was low. There are references of Sati in Ramayana and Mahabharata. Increased commercial activity led to proliferation of art and craft. 

2. Buddhism tend to decline in this period. The Buddhist order moved away from the common people and isolated itself. 

3. Monks now received gold and silver, non-vegetarian food and elaborate robes. Discipline became so slack that some even left the Sangha and resumed the householder's life. By the beginning of the Christian era, images of the Buddha began to be worshipped. 

4. Brahmanism period saw the revival of Brahmanism and it assumed the features which today are recognized as Hinduism.

5. The concept of trinity of Gods-Brahma, Vishnu, Maheswara; epic heroes Rama, Krishna; doctrines of Karma and transmigration, gained importance. Many interpolations were made, the most important being the 'Bhagawad Gita'. 

6. Jainism maintained itself as a parish religion with more determination than Buddhism, hence survived in India. 

7. Christianity entered into India during the AD 1st century by way of the trading ships from the West. St. Thomas led two Christian Missions to India. 

Post - Mauryan Art 

Besides, the sculptural art form, the construction of Stupas, Chaityas and Viharas assumed popularity. 

Gandhara School of Art 

The influence of this art was mainly Hellenistic in context of style and Buddhist in context of religion. Certain distinctive features of this art were as follows: 

- Realistic representation of human figure (it is the hallmark of this art form) clearly indicating limbs and other organs of body, i.e. the representation was prototype of human body. 

- In realistic representation, the anatomical accuracy was emphasized. 

- Distinguished muscles constituted a distinctive part of the images made under this art. 

- The hairstyle was curly, which represents Greek influence. 

- The drapery was transparent and here we find a beautiful harmony between the drapery and physical features of human body. 

- One excellent example was the Bamiyan Buddha of Afghanistan. 

Mathura School of Art 

The chief patron of this art form were Kushanas and chief material was white spotted red sandstone. Some distinctive features of this art were as follows: 

- Images were grand and solid, the masculine beauty was discernible and body was firm. 

- The eroticism is discernible in the images which was given beautiful expression through physical features. 

- The images also show a religious influence. Spirituality was expressed in the images. Halo was used which represented a spiritualistic feelings. 

- We also find images of the Brahmanical God and Goddesses such as Shiva, Lakshmi, Surya, Balrama, Vishnu, Kubera etc. 

- The earliest images of Buddha and Bodhisattvas are found in this school. The Buddha was portrayed as head and face shaven; right hand in Abhaya posture and tight dress. Image started getting fashioned in round, so that they could be seen from every side. 

- Various images of Jaina Tirthankara such as crossed legged naked Tirthankara like Rishabhaatha, Parshavanath etc are associated with this school. 

- The Kushanas king such as Kanishka and Vim Kadphises were shown in Central Asian dress. Important finding is the headless image of Kanishka from Mathura. 

- This art form to some extent influenced Amravati School of Art. 

- Mathura school also produced the beautiful images of Yaksha and Yakshini, produced beautiful female figure and these figure's being very remarkable. Hellenistic/Greek influence was absent. 

Amravati School of Art 

1. Its patrons were Satavahanas and Ikshvakus. The main centres were Nagarjunakonda, Ghantasala, Amravati, Jaggayyapeta etc. Chief material used was white marble. The principle influence in this case was of Buddhist themes. Physical beauty was elegantly expressed in images. Images shows sensual expressions. 

2. It focuses upon human beings, but representation was narrative rather than individualistic. The kings, princes etc were represented through images. But this representation does not focus upon the individual presence of kings or princes. Rather king was associated with various activities and shown in a group. Notable achievements were the female figure in different moods and poses.